Kidney Function and Alcohol Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Kidney Function and Alcohol - Essay Example The first process, i.e. Ultrafiltration means filtration under immense pressure and takes place in the Bowman’s capsule. A hydrostatic pressure develops in the capsule because the efferent arteriole is narrower than the afferent arteriole owing to which water, glucose, amino acids, urea and salts enter the capsule from the glomerulus through podocytes (McNaught & Callander, 1975). The second process, i.e. Reabsorption helps to return useful constituents back into the blood stream. Reabsorption takes place in the convoluted tubules as well as in the Loop of Henle. Active Reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule where entire glucose, sodium, potassium, uric acid and 75% water is reabsorbed. After this the liquid enters the Loop of Henle where further salts and water are again reabsorbed. Almost 80% of the water Reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule and the Loop of Henle by obligatory Reabsorption. It is during Reabsorption that a counter cu rrent mechanism occurs and the urine is made hypertonic by regular exchange of sodium ions between the limbs of the Loop of Henle. Next, the urine passes into the distal convoluted tubule where the Reabsorption of water is initiated by a hormone named ADH or Vasopressin. Vasopressin or ADH is released by the posterior pituitary gland and play an important role in regulating the amount of urine formed. Absence of ADH in the distal convoluted tubule decreases Reabsorption of water and hence large amounts of urine is passed whereas increased amount of ADH, increases Reabsorption of water and the quantity of urine passed is much less. The last process is called Tubular secretion which takes place in the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting tubules. Tubular secretion is the opposite mechanism of tubular Reabsorption. Here, potassium ions are secreted to maintain the pH of the blood while sodium is reabsorbed by rennin-angiotensin mechanism (Dunn & Donnelly, 2008, pp79). After thi s the urine formed is voided through the urethra via the act of micturition. The kidneys not only help in elimination of harmful substances but also play an important role in maintaining blood volume. Kidneys are able to retain water and sodium, owing to hormone vasopressin and rennin-angiotensin mechanism help in regulating the blood volume too. Alcohol consumption is detrimental for the body in more ways than just one. It affects the liver, excretory system, circulatory system, respiratory system and is a major cause of disease such as liver cirrhosis, alcoholic hepatitis, cancer etc (Barclay et al, 2008). Both chronic and acute alcohol consumption is known to have adverse effects on the body especially on the excretory system because it taxes the kidneys heavily. Alcohol consumption impairs the efficiency of the kidneys and disturbs the fluid and electrolytic balance of the body. It has been observed that within half an hour of alcohol consumption, urine is excreted. The increase d loss of fluid through urine excretion leads to concentration of the electrolytes present in the blood. This is in fact the major reason that causes dehydration in people who consume alcohol. We are already aware of the fact that urine output depends largely on Anti-Diuretic hormone or Vasopressin. Vasopressin induces fluid conservation by the kidneys thereby concentrating the urine output. In the absence of this effect, the kidneys fail to conserve any fluid because of

Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay Example for Free

Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay The Birth of a Monster Frankenstein can be [home-3. tiscali. nl] read as a tale of what happens when a man tries to create a child without a woman. It can, however, also be read as an account of a womans anxieties and insecurities about her own creative and reproductive capabilities. Among the deviations from the original book is the creation of the monster bride. In the book, the creation asks Victor Frankenstein to fashion a monster woman for him. He reluctantly agrees, but destroys the creature right before he is about to breathe life into it. However, in the film he goes through with his plan only after the monster murders Elizabeth on their wedding night by thrusting his hand into her chest and ripping out her heart [home-3. tiscali. nl]. Victor then takes Elizabeths body back to his laboratory, where he attaches her head to the exhumed body of Justine, the nanny. He then galvanizes this new body and brings Elizabeth back as a horrific bride. When the monster approaches thinking that the bride is meant for him, a stand-off occurs before the bride kills herself by fire [home-3. tiscali. nl]. Male Friendship in Jamess Short Stories Jamess short stories focus on the theme of male friendship [glbtq. com]. Texts like The Pupil (1890) portray relationships between older men and their proteges associations. The Beast in the Jungle (1903) comprises a case study of homosexual panic. Moreover, stories like The Jolly Corner (1908), which involves a protagonist who confronts himself as he might have been, had he not left America for a solitary existence in Europe. It dramatizes the ways in which the protagonist comes to embrace heterosexual love. This might suggest that Jamess portrayals of women suffer as a result of the privileged male relationships in his short stories. To a certain extent, this is true at the same time Jamess [glbtq. com]treatment of women is also skillful. This has led many feminist critics to applaud his representations of femininity. James did not support womens rights and was frequently quite dismissive of female writers but his female characters are among the most positively represented in British and American literature. In turn, although Jamess ambivalence toward gay love and lifestyles propels his fiction, his portrayals of male friendships are provocative and powerful. Indeed, the fated nature of these relationships testifies not only to Jamess inability to conceive of a space wherein homosexual love might be dramatized, it also points to the pall cast by the Wilde trials, wherein the specter of Oscar shadowed the comportment of many gay men of his age. James, caught within a myriad of conflicting cultural positionsan American living in Europe, a gay man living in a normative heterosexual worldwas able to channel his own marginality into literary texts that document the anxieties of his age, be they social, sexual, or cultural [glbtq. com]. Conclusion The Queer theory is a theory of sociology (or philosophy), which criticizes mainly the concept of gender, feminism, and the preconceived idea of genetic determinism in the sexual preference. Although homosexuality and queer practices are nothing new, the association between queer practices and deviancy is taking on new meaning in the modern world as queer community and queer culture becomes more apparent. Queer culture is not limited to queer sex. Queer culture, from an ideological standpoint, represents the queer community and its arts, lifestyles, institutions, writings, politics, relationships and everything else encompassed in culture. Queer culture in general is intertwining with the common normative culture, with people being exposed to the ideas of â€Å"gay pride† and becoming more educated about queer studies in schools and society. Reference: Barris, S[24/07/2007 ] GAINING THE RIGHT TO SPEAK AT THE UN http://www. ilga. org/news_results. asp? LanguageID=1FileID=1090FileCategory=44ZoneID=7 Coming Out as Transgender http://www. hrc. org/Content/NavigationMenu/Coming_Out/Get_Informed4/Coming_Out_as_Transgender/Coming_Out_as_Transgender.htm Commentaries on Seidman, Meeks and Traschen: `Beyond the Closet? : After the Closet Bech Sexualities. 1999; 2: 343-346 http://sexualities. sagepub. com/cgi/content/refs/2/3/343. â€Å"Epistemology of the closet†, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, in â€Å"The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader†, Routledge, New York, London, 1993 [italico da autora, sublinhados e gordos nossos] http://branconolilas. no. sapo. pt/sedgwick. htm Foucault: The History of Sexuality http://www. ipce. info/ipceweb/Library/history_of_sexuality. htm.

Aristotles Notion Of Body And Soul Essay -- essays research papers

Aristotele’s Notion of Body and Soul, and My opinion What is Aristotele’s notion of body and soul? According to Aristotle, everything in the world is divided between superior and inferior. Man is superior to the animals, the male to the female, and the soul to the body. â€Å"The soul is more noble than our possesions or our bodies';. Therefore, man should act through his soul, and not through his body. The soul services the greater good. If a man does not act from his soul, and thus lets his body rule the sole, he is not worthy of politics, and is a ‘natural slave’. A natural slave is born to slavery. For him slavery is â€Å"both expedient and right';, because they let the bodily pleasures, wants and lusts overrule rationality. The people who do let the soul rule over the body are in the ‘p...

A Prisoner’s Re-Entry into Society

Prisoner re-entry is a vitally important issue today which has yet to reach its full impact on the minds and lives of voters. However, with every passing year the importance of this topic becomes more evident. Since the eighties, every passing year has brought more pressure for harsher and longer imprisonment and more streamlined mandatory sentencing rules. This has not only resulted in an exploding prison population, but also in a drastic increase in the number of prisoners re-released into communities. Additionally, the push towards more punitive measures has decreased educational opportunities in prisons and the availability of rehabilitation programs. This means that released prisoners are increasingly unable to reintegrate into their communities, increasingly prone to recidivism, and increasingly violent in each release and re-capture cycle. Even the conservative Bush administration has recognized the threat posed by unprepared prisoner re-entry and responded with a series of grants to private and public organizations involved in rehabilitation and easing prisoner transitions. However, merely making government money available to private, religious, or state-based programs is not enough. These funds are only likely to reach a minority of prisoners who are already being aided by the aided programs. Prisoners whose communities and systems do not already take measures to help their rehabilitation will not be seeing any increase in re-entry programs or preparation. A nationwide set of standards is needed to assure that every prisoner eligible for re-release into the community will be inoculated against recidivism and prepared to become a useful part of the society in which they will reside. It is time for the Democratic Party to back away from the conservative model of crime prevention through fear and towards social responsible model of crime prevention through the creation of healthy communities. This can be done in large part by reforming the prison system from a gulag of social control and intimidation into a truly educational experience in which prisoners are put on a moderated track towards social responsibility, respect for the rights of others, and preparation to take a beneficial role in society. Joan Petersilia wrote an insightful book on this subject documenting a series of studies in crime and public policy, When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. After presenting many pages of carefully documented research, Petersilia provided four suggestions for future reform which could drastically reduce recidivism and change returning prisoners from presenting a public threat to being a boon to society. These suggestions were as follows: 1. Alter the in-prison experience. Provide more education, work, and rehabilitation opportunities. Change the prison environment to promote life skills rather than violence and domination. 2. Change prison release and revocation practices. Institute a system of discretionary parole release that incorporates parole release guidelines. These parole guidelines should be based primarily on recidivism prediction. 3. Revise post-prison services and supervision. Incorporate better parole supervision classification systems, and target services and surveillance to those with high need and risk profiles. 4. Foster collaborations with the community and enhance mechanisms of informal social control. Develop partnerships with service providers, ex-convicts, law enforcement, family members, victim advocates, and neighborhoods to support the offender. (Petersilia) These suggestions represent the best Democratic policy towards reform of the prisoner re-entry system. Petersilia's book on the subject provides documentation about the efficacy of these recommendations and their necessity in the current environment. The remainder of this paper will focus on the precise laws, policies, and programs which may be recommended to promote the implementations of these suggestions. Petersilia's first recommendation is to alter the in-prison experience. This may not be the immediately evident response to prisoner re-entry, but evidence suggests it may in fact be the most important response. As Petersilia points out in a separate article on the â€Å"Challenges of Prisoner Reentry and Parole in California,† the reason that returning convicts pose such a threat is not merely that they are dangerous criminals returning to the communities that they originally victimized, but that their time in prison has in all likelihood increased the dangers they pose to civilians! It is common knowledge that non-violent and inexperienced criminals entering the prison system are likely to emerge being both violent and experienced due to the brutal conditions that exist in most prisons. Male (and female) rape is extremely common in the prison system, with estimates placed between 13-70% of inmates suffering unwanted sexual conduct. (HRW) Such brutal experiences lead many inmates to experience post traumatic stress disorder, which has been positively linked to increased violent tendencies. The degree of dehumanization and stress common in prison can cause other problems as well. â€Å"Mental illnesses, particularly chronic anxiety and depression, may be caused by incarceration. Psychologists believe that incarceration often breeds ‘global rage,' an impulsive and explosive anger so great that a minor incident can trigger an uncontrolled response.† (Petersilia, â€Å"Challenges†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) The Human Rights Watch's report on prison rape in America recommends several measures for preventing prison rape and brutality, and it is vital that policy focus on this aspect of the prison experience. In 2003 a bill was passed establishing a National Commission dedicated to studying prison rape, and several other measures to provide information and training regarding prison rape. However, these measures did not go far enough to assure that prison rape was both prosecuted and that victims received help and counseling. Neither mandatory prosecution nor counseling was included in the bill's measures. Though some constituents might hesitate to focus on preventing brutality to prisoners (indeed, if one pays close attention to the sorts of attitudes and jokes prevalent on crime shows such as Law and Order and NYPD Blue, many consumers may think that prison rape is a justifiable punishment for child abusers and pedophiles), it is important to remember that prison rape victims are likely to emerge with HIV and equally likely to become sexual abusers after their experiences even if they were not abusers before. Thus it is a public health and safety concern to prevent prison rape and other brutality between prisoners. The following policies should be instituted nationwide: 1. Division of prison population between violent and non-violent criminals, and between those who are eligible for parole and those who are not. (Parole-eligible prisoners have more incentive for good behavior) 2. Establishment of special court systems for prison population, mandatory investigation and prosecution of all incidents of hospitalization resulting from sexual assault, availability of independent prisoner-rights advocates, and segregation of all inmates convicted of prisoner-on-prisoner sexual assault to carefully regulated wards, and automatic termination for any employee convicted of sexual impropriety or battery of an inmate. 3. Mandatory counseling and AIDS testing for all prison brutality victims and the establishment of victim-positive protective custody arrangements. (Many victimized inmates are only offered solitary confinement as a protective arrangement, which generally means loss of other privileges and any human interaction, potentially worsening the trauma and decreasing reports) Condoms and retro-virus treatment should be made available to all AIDS/HIV positive inmates, so that future consensual prison relationships will be less likely to increase AIDS transmission. Additionally, the very arrangement of prisons tends to discourage personal responsibility and the development of positive social interactions. Petersilia describes how prison systems punish individual initiative and free-thought, and fail to prepare inmates for independence and responsibility within an open society. â€Å"When personal choice is eliminated, so is personal accountability because the system makes all decisions for prisoners.† (Petersilia, 184) A nationwide study should be undertaken regarding ways that personal choice and accountability can be safely established in prisons and a set of guidelines for national and private prisons should be developed based on the results of that study. Petersilia recommends some programs which have had success in the past which allow simple personal choice from requiring prisoners to decide for themselves when/how to clean their own cells, send their laundry to the cleaners, and so forth. Involving prisoners in some of the more mundane aspects of their confinement is likely to increase the sense of personal control and encourage responsibility. These changes should not be geared so much as ameliorating the punishment of prisoners as of assuring that the incarceration does not reduce their ability to function as a free person. One more important issue regarding prison experience is the availability of vocational and academic training. It is well known by those who study these issues that prisoners who are able to be employed after re-entry to society are significantly less likely to commit further crimes. Petersilia's second suggestion was to change prison release and revocation practices. The best recommendation for policy on this issue would be to adjust mandatory sentences so that they included the completion of certain educational and behavioral requirements. These adapted sentences would require the inmate to both complete a certain length of time and a set of release requirements to be established by a panel of experts on a case-by-case basis. These release requirements must be completed before the inmate was eligible either for parole or release based on time served. Requirements should include, as determined per individual case, mandatory counseling, addiction treatment, educational attainment, vocational studies, and good behavior. Petersilia points out that, based on prison records, recidivism predictions can be made that are 80% correct. Recidivism predictors should be made clear to inmates and they should be encouraged to work towards being eligible for release and parole. A nationwide set of guidelines regarding minimum achievements requirements in addition to the current nationwide set of minimum time-served requirements would return the focus to rehabilitation rather than mere punishment. In fact, the minimum time-served should be directly related to the minimum time necessary to complete the release requirements. Part of assuring that the prison system creates parolees who do not endanger the community is assuring that it creates educated parolees. It would do well in the future for ex-criminals to speak of â€Å"graduating† from prison, as it were, and going on to lead productive lives. In 1997 the Center on Crime, Communities, and Culture reported that â€Å"inmates with at least two years of college have a 10% re-arrest rate, compared to a national re-arrest rate of approximately 60%.† This is somewhat ironic, because just three years earlier in 1994 Congress passed a bill which virtually destroyed the prison undergraduate school system. This bill eliminated Pell grants paying for the education of incarcerated individuals. â€Å"Nationally, the only higher education program that's still publicly funded is for youthful offenders.† (Banks) So it is that since 1994 recidivism has increased by almost half, going from around 60% to nearly 90%. Today a mixture of volunteers, religious organizations, and state-funded programs have moved in to provide some college education for inmates. However only slightly more than 10% of prisoners will re-enter society with a college degree. A new bill should be sponsored which would fight to prevent crime by educating prisoners and thus slashing their chances of offending again. Even if Pell Grants were not extended to prisoners, perhaps a new system of educational grants should be developed that would pay for accredited college education for prisoners as part of their pre-release requirements. Our founding fathers all focused on the necessity of a free people being an educated people, and claimed that democracy was dependent on the education of the people. If we are to prepare prisoners to reenter a democratic nation and partake in it as citizens rather than as public enemies, then a liberal arts education which both prepares them for work and prepares them to understand the rights and responsibilities of all citizens is absolutely necessary. Petersilia's third point is that we need extensive post-release services. A new set of federal guidelines should require all released prisoners to be prepared with housing and income options. Halfway housing should be arranged for those who do not have families prepared to commit to providing housing. Job-placement services should be arranged before release and continued employment should be a condition of parole with job-placement provided at any point during the parole period at which the ex-inmate becomes unemployed. Continued medical treatment and counseling for prison-related problems (including AIDS and mental illness) should be provided, as well as mandatory counseling and guidance sessions. More federal and state funding needs to be available to increase the number of parole officers and services. Nationwide there is a shortage in parole officers. In California, for example, â€Å"the ratio is now 82 parolees to 1 parole officer†¦ even parolees who are motivated to change have little opportunity to do so.† (Petersilia, â€Å"Challenges†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ) According to Petersilia's research, â€Å"most inmates have a strong desire to succeed when they are first released.† (Petersilia, â€Å"Challenges†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) Therefore it is vital that re-entry services are provided. Additionally, as most inmates are re-arrested within three years, it seems vital that such services are available for a period of at least five years as the inmates adjust to the responsibility and freedom of life outside. Homelessness, lack of income and opportunities, and a return to addiction are among the main reasons for a return to crime — proper post-release supervision, counseling, and provision of housing and work opportunities can prevent this. Though such supervision would be expensive, it will be far less expensive to provide ex-inmates with housing, employment, and services within the community than to provide them with housing, constant supervision, and services inside our prisons after they re-offend. In conclusion, it appears that a national Recidivism Prevention Bill is absolutely necessary. This bill should include: 1) a commitment to stop prison rape by means of the creation of a special court system for in-prison crimes such as rape, the mandatory investigation of prison rape cases, and special custody arrangements designed to combat rape; 2) the establishment of a study resulting in national guidelines for prison reform aimed at fostering social responsibility and accountability; 3) the establishment and funding of an accredited national university of correctional facilities which provides liberal arts, vocational, and technical degrees to inmates; 4) Creation of national guidelines for sentencing to include individual minimum release requirements including (but not limited to) successful completion of addiction or other counseling, charitable service, educational and vocational training, evidence of good behavior, and treatment for mental health problems; 5) national guidelines and funding for parole services including housing, job-placement and training, medical services , and mental health/addiction/family adjustment counseling, and a low parolee-to-officer ration allowing for adequate surveillance and regular check-ups. A Prisoner’s Re-Entry into Society Prisoner re-entry is a vitally important issue today which has yet to reach its full impact on the minds and lives of voters. However, with every passing year the importance of this topic becomes more evident. Since the eighties, every passing year has brought more pressure for harsher and longer imprisonment and more streamlined mandatory sentencing rules. This has not only resulted in an exploding prison population, but also in a drastic increase in the number of prisoners re-released into communities. Additionally, the push towards more punitive measures has decreased educational opportunities in prisons and the availability of rehabilitation programs. This means that released prisoners are increasingly unable to reintegrate into their communities, increasingly prone to recidivism, and increasingly violent in each release and re-capture cycle. Even the conservative Bush administration has recognized the threat posed by unprepared prisoner re-entry and responded with a series of grants to private and public organizations involved in rehabilitation and easing prisoner transitions. However, merely making government money available to private, religious, or state-based programs is not enough. These funds are only likely to reach a minority of prisoners who are already being aided by the aided programs. Prisoners whose communities and systems do not already take measures to help their rehabilitation will not be seeing any increase in re-entry programs or preparation. A nationwide set of standards is needed to assure that every prisoner eligible for re-release into the community will be inoculated against recidivism and prepared to become a useful part of the society in which they will reside. It is time for the Democratic Party to back away from the conservative model of crime prevention through fear and towards social responsible model of crime prevention through the creation of healthy communities. This can be done in large part by reforming the prison system from a gulag of social control and intimidation into a truly educational experience in which prisoners are put on a moderated track towards social responsibility, respect for the rights of others, and preparation to take a beneficial role in society. Joan Petersilia wrote an insightful book on this subject documenting a series of studies in crime and public policy, When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. After presenting many pages of carefully documented research, Petersilia provided four suggestions for future reform which could drastically reduce recidivism and change returning prisoners from presenting a public threat to being a boon to society. These suggestions were as follows: 1. Alter the in-prison experience. Provide more education, work, and rehabilitation opportunities. Change the prison environment to promote life skills rather than violence and domination. 2. Change prison release and revocation practices. Institute a system of discretionary parole release that incorporates parole release guidelines. These parole guidelines should be based primarily on recidivism prediction. 3. Revise post-prison services and supervision. Incorporate better parole supervision classification systems, and target services and surveillance to those with high need and risk profiles. 4. Foster collaborations with the community and enhance mechanisms of informal social control. Develop partnerships with service providers, ex-convicts, law enforcement, family members, victim advocates, and neighborhoods to support the offender. (Petersilia) These suggestions represent the best Democratic policy towards reform of the prisoner re-entry system. Petersilia's book on the subject provides documentation about the efficacy of these recommendations and their necessity in the current environment. The remainder of this paper will focus on the precise laws, policies, and programs which may be recommended to promote the implementations of these suggestions. Petersilia's first recommendation is to alter the in-prison experience. This may not be the immediately evident response to prisoner re-entry, but evidence suggests it may in fact be the most important response. As Petersilia points out in a separate article on the â€Å"Challenges of Prisoner Reentry and Parole in California,† the reason that returning convicts pose such a threat is not merely that they are dangerous criminals returning to the communities that they originally victimized, but that their time in prison has in all likelihood increased the dangers they pose to civilians! It is common knowledge that non-violent and inexperienced criminals entering the prison system are likely to emerge being both violent and experienced due to the brutal conditions that exist in most prisons. Male (and female) rape is extremely common in the prison system, with estimates placed between 13-70% of inmates suffering unwanted sexual conduct. (HRW) Such brutal experiences lead many inmates to experience post traumatic stress disorder, which has been positively linked to increased violent tendencies. The degree of dehumanization and stress common in prison can cause other problems as well. â€Å"Mental illnesses, particularly chronic anxiety and depression, may be caused by incarceration. Psychologists believe that incarceration often breeds ‘global rage,' an impulsive and explosive anger so great that a minor incident can trigger an uncontrolled response.† (Petersilia, â€Å"Challenges†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) The Human Rights Watch's report on prison rape in America recommends several measures for preventing prison rape and brutality, and it is vital that policy focus on this aspect of the prison experience. In 2003 a bill was passed establishing a National Commission dedicated to studying prison rape, and several other measures to provide information and training regarding prison rape. However, these measures did not go far enough to assure that prison rape was both prosecuted and that victims received help and counseling. Neither mandatory prosecution nor counseling was included in the bill's measures. Though some constituents might hesitate to focus on preventing brutality to prisoners (indeed, if one pays close attention to the sorts of attitudes and jokes prevalent on crime shows such as Law and Order and NYPD Blue, many consumers may think that prison rape is a justifiable punishment for child abusers and pedophiles), it is important to remember that prison rape victims are likely to emerge with HIV and equally likely to become sexual abusers after their experiences even if they were not abusers before. Thus it is a public health and safety concern to prevent prison rape and other brutality between prisoners. The following policies should be instituted nationwide: 1. Division of prison population between violent and non-violent criminals, and between those who are eligible for parole and those who are not. (Parole-eligible prisoners have more incentive for good behavior) 2. Establishment of special court systems for prison population, mandatory investigation and prosecution of all incidents of hospitalization resulting from sexual assault, availability of independent prisoner-rights advocates, and segregation of all inmates convicted of prisoner-on-prisoner sexual assault to carefully regulated wards, and automatic termination for any employee convicted of sexual impropriety or battery of an inmate. 3. Mandatory counseling and AIDS testing for all prison brutality victims and the establishment of victim-positive protective custody arrangements. (Many victimized inmates are only offered solitary confinement as a protective arrangement, which generally means loss of other privileges and any human interaction, potentially worsening the trauma and decreasing reports) Condoms and retro-virus treatment should be made available to all AIDS/HIV positive inmates, so that future consensual prison relationships will be less likely to increase AIDS transmission. Additionally, the very arrangement of prisons tends to discourage personal responsibility and the development of positive social interactions. Petersilia describes how prison systems punish individual initiative and free-thought, and fail to prepare inmates for independence and responsibility within an open society. â€Å"When personal choice is eliminated, so is personal accountability because the system makes all decisions for prisoners.† (Petersilia, 184) A nationwide study should be undertaken regarding ways that personal choice and accountability can be safely established in prisons and a set of guidelines for national and private prisons should be developed based on the results of that study. Petersilia recommends some programs which have had success in the past which allow simple personal choice from requiring prisoners to decide for themselves when/how to clean their own cells, send their laundry to the cleaners, and so forth. Involving prisoners in some of the more mundane aspects of their confinement is likely to increase the sense of personal control and encourage responsibility. These changes should not be geared so much as ameliorating the punishment of prisoners as of assuring that the incarceration does not reduce their ability to function as a free person. One more important issue regarding prison experience is the availability of vocational and academic training. It is well known by those who study these issues that prisoners who are able to be employed after re-entry to society are significantly less likely to commit further crimes. Petersilia's second suggestion was to change prison release and revocation practices. The best recommendation for policy on this issue would be to adjust mandatory sentences so that they included the completion of certain educational and behavioral requirements. These adapted sentences would require the inmate to both complete a certain length of time and a set of release requirements to be established by a panel of experts on a case-by-case basis. These release requirements must be completed before the inmate was eligible either for parole or release based on time served. Requirements should include, as determined per individual case, mandatory counseling, addiction treatment, educational attainment, vocational studies, and good behavior. Petersilia points out that, based on prison records, recidivism predictions can be made that are 80% correct. Recidivism predictors should be made clear to inmates and they should be encouraged to work towards being eligible for release and parole. A nationwide set of guidelines regarding minimum achievements requirements in addition to the current nationwide set of minimum time-served requirements would return the focus to rehabilitation rather than mere punishment. In fact, the minimum time-served should be directly related to the minimum time necessary to complete the release requirements. Part of assuring that the prison system creates parolees who do not endanger the community is assuring that it creates educated parolees. It would do well in the future for ex-criminals to speak of â€Å"graduating† from prison, as it were, and going on to lead productive lives. In 1997 the Center on Crime, Communities, and Culture reported that â€Å"inmates with at least two years of college have a 10% re-arrest rate, compared to a national re-arrest rate of approximately 60%.† This is somewhat ironic, because just three years earlier in 1994 Congress passed a bill which virtually destroyed the prison undergraduate school system. This bill eliminated Pell grants paying for the education of incarcerated individuals. â€Å"Nationally, the only higher education program that's still publicly funded is for youthful offenders.† (Banks) So it is that since 1994 recidivism has increased by almost half, going from around 60% to nearly 90%. Today a mixture of volunteers, religious organizations, and state-funded programs have moved in to provide some college education for inmates. However only slightly more than 10% of prisoners will re-enter society with a college degree. A new bill should be sponsored which would fight to prevent crime by educating prisoners and thus slashing their chances of offending again. Even if Pell Grants were not extended to prisoners, perhaps a new system of educational grants should be developed that would pay for accredited college education for prisoners as part of their pre-release requirements. Our founding fathers all focused on the necessity of a free people being an educated people, and claimed that democracy was dependent on the education of the people. If we are to prepare prisoners to reenter a democratic nation and partake in it as citizens rather than as public enemies, then a liberal arts education which both prepares them for work and prepares them to understand the rights and responsibilities of all citizens is absolutely necessary. Petersilia's third point is that we need extensive post-release services. A new set of federal guidelines should require all released prisoners to be prepared with housing and income options. Halfway housing should be arranged for those who do not have families prepared to commit to providing housing. Job-placement services should be arranged before release and continued employment should be a condition of parole with job-placement provided at any point during the parole period at which the ex-inmate becomes unemployed. Continued medical treatment and counseling for prison-related problems (including AIDS and mental illness) should be provided, as well as mandatory counseling and guidance sessions. More federal and state funding needs to be available to increase the number of parole officers and services. Nationwide there is a shortage in parole officers. In California, for example, â€Å"the ratio is now 82 parolees to 1 parole officer†¦ even parolees who are motivated to change have little opportunity to do so.† (Petersilia, â€Å"Challenges†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ) According to Petersilia's research, â€Å"most inmates have a strong desire to succeed when they are first released.† (Petersilia, â€Å"Challenges†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) Therefore it is vital that re-entry services are provided. Additionally, as most inmates are re-arrested within three years, it seems vital that such services are available for a period of at least five years as the inmates adjust to the responsibility and freedom of life outside. Homelessness, lack of income and opportunities, and a return to addiction are among the main reasons for a return to crime — proper post-release supervision, counseling, and provision of housing and work opportunities can prevent this. Though such supervision would be expensive, it will be far less expensive to provide ex-inmates with housing, employment, and services within the community than to provide them with housing, constant supervision, and services inside our prisons after they re-offend. In conclusion, it appears that a national Recidivism Prevention Bill is absolutely necessary. This bill should include: 1) a commitment to stop prison rape by means of the creation of a special court system for in-prison crimes such as rape, the mandatory investigation of prison rape cases, and special custody arrangements designed to combat rape; 2) the establishment of a study resulting in national guidelines for prison reform aimed at fostering social responsibility and accountability; 3) the establishment and funding of an accredited national university of correctional facilities which provides liberal arts, vocational, and technical degrees to inmates; 4) Creation of national guidelines for sentencing to include individual minimum release requirements including (but not limited to) successful completion of addiction or other counseling, charitable service, educational and vocational training, evidence of good behavior, and treatment for mental health problems; 5) national guidelines and funding for parole services including housing, job-placement and training, medical services , and mental health/addiction/family adjustment counseling, and a low parolee-to-officer ration allowing for adequate surveillance and regular check-ups.

Analysis of Shakespeare Sonnet 60

Like As The Waves Make Towards The Pebbled Shore Time is a common theme throughout Shakespeare's Sonnets, this is most apparent in Sonnet 60. This sonnet is about the ravages of time. How time never stops and is constantly changing. Also how time is aging us, and eventually takes what is has given us. But Shakespeare poetry will stand the test of time: Like as the waues make towards the pibled shore, So do our minuites hasten to their end, Each changing place with that which goes before, In sequent toile all forwards do contend. Natiuity once in the maine of light.Crawles to maturity, wherewith being crown’d, Crooked eclipses gainst his glory fight, And time that gaue, doth now his gift confound. Time doth transfixe the florish set on youth, And delues the paralels in beauties brow, Feedes on the rarities of natures truth, And nothing stands but for his sieth to mow. And yet to times in hope, my verse shall stand Praising thy worth, dispight his cruell hand. Sonnet 60 starts w ith a very relatable illustration of a waves constantly traveling towards the shore. This is like time in that there are minutes constantly, continuing, going to their end.Each minute or wave replacing the one that just happened, in a continuous march. Just like every wave is building in strength and then crashing again only to be followed by another in its place. Time cannot be stopped, one minute is always followed by the next in a never ending cycle. The second quatrain says that a new sun rises and with time it rises to maturity, noon, where the sun is its highest and king of the sky. Then the sun starts to set and now what once gave the sun its glory is now taking that glory back, time. This is a metaphor of a sun having a human life.The sun starts out being born â€Å"Nativity† and then crawls like a baby until it reaches its highest point where it is â€Å"crowned† with maturity. Then the sun continues to fall back to darkness or death. â€Å"And time that gaue , doth now his gift confound† this last line concludes the metaphor with the assertion that time both gives the gift of life and then takes in away. The final quatrain goes on to explain that time destroys the perfection of youth, and carves wrinkles in a beautiful face. â€Å"And delues the paralels in beauties brow. If you replace delues with deludes and beauties brow with our forehead, then you can see that its stating that times makes wrinkles or lines across your forehead. So, time is aging us. Times also feeds on the rarities of natures perfection, and lays waste to all in its path. â€Å"And nothing stands but for his sieth to mow. † Seethe is constantly used as a metaphor for death, this is saying that nothing stands in times way, or deaths. Again the metaphor of time giving you life and then taking it away is expressed in this quatrain, though it being much darker and showing how relentless and unforgiving time can be.This metaphor is also more relatable since it is about us and how time ages us and eventually leads to our death. â€Å"And yet to times in hope, my verse shall stand Praising thy worth, dispight his cruell hand. † These last couple of lines go on to explain that his verses shall stand the test of time, praising your worth in spite of time's cruel hand. These last lines are saying that even as time takes him, makes him old, and eventually even kills him, his poetry will live on, not affected by time's cruel hand. It looks like he was right because over five hundred years later and here we are today still reading and analyzing these works.Time is a very relatable thing, and this sonnet explains time very well. It explains what time is, it's just seconds building on minutes continually going to their end. Time is giving, giving someone life and power, raising that person to their prime. Time is also very cruel, it takes that power and life away from that person. Time is such a simple thing, it's only seconds and then m inutes, but through this sonnet it has been personified to something more, something greater. It is a giver and taker, it is life but is also death, and in the end it is time that takes us.

Causes of Childhood Obesity Essay Example

Causes of Childhood Obesity Essay Example Causes of Childhood Obesity Essay Causes of Childhood Obesity Essay Causes of Childhood Obesity Obesity is a superfluous amount of fat in the body. Obesity happens when a person’s body receives many more calories than it can burn by itself during the day. In other words it means that people eat generous helpings of processed food; moreover, this food can consist of a lot of cholesterol, which is extremely dangerous for the human body. Childhood obesity today has grown rapidly and has become a disturbing epidemic in many countries in the past few decades. Studies show that since the early 1970s, the percentage of both children and adults who can be characterized as overweight has doubled. According to a survey by the Public Health Agency of Canada in 2007, self-reported rates among children from age 12 to 17 of obesity were 2. 9% for girls and 6. 8% for boys. It is interesting that children who have problems with weight are more likely to become overweight adults. In a study by Lauren Marcus and Amanda Baron (n. d. ) it was found that obesity begins in childhood for 30 persent obese adults. Sientists give many reasons for obesity, but the main three causes of childhood obesity are genetics, lack of activity, and children nourishment at school and at home. It is proven by scientists that genetics plays an important role of human beings. In spite of a fact that childhood obesity became a problem recently, the scientist already have evidence that childhood obesity is at least partly caused by genetics. Studies show that some ethnic groups have more prerequisites to be obese or are more defenseless to obesity-related disorders; moreover, a high body mass index could be associated with some genes (Denis Daneman and Jill Hamilton, 2010). A lot of people believe that a child has a 50 percent chance to be obese, if he or she has one overweight parent. When a child has both parents who are obese, there is an 80 percent or less chance of being obese. No doubt, genes affect how a person’s body stores fat and how it is distributes through the body. Besides, genetics plays an important role in how rationally the body burns received calories during the day and burns calories during exercises, and also how effectively the body produces energy from food. Even though a child is genetically predetermined to obesity, exercises and a diet both in families and in schools are the main causes to gain weight. Lack of activity is another cause of childhood obesity. It is proven that daily participation in school physical education contributes positive effect to physical development, and builds a strong muscle system for the future. If a child is not active during the day, his body can’t burn as many calories as it needs to burn, and as a result, from year to year a child gains more weight. Doctors Trembley and Willms in 2003 argued that â€Å"Automated labor-saving devices and inexpensive and ubiquitous access to calorie-dense food create an environment conducive to obesity. Excessive TV watching and video game use have been identified as a stimulus for excessive eating and sedentary behavior†. According to the research of Tremblay and Willmas a risk of being overweight is around 17 to 44 percent, and 10 – 61 percent of being obese is a consequence of watching TV and playing video games (ibid). It is necessary for children to have and participate in the active life; otherwise that calories received from a junk food in front of the TV couldn’t be burn properly by the body. That is why a child’s sedentary lifestyle serves as a gateway to the childhood obesity. Childhood diet at home and at school is the most important cause of childhood obesity. However, the members of the family share not only their genes, but also a diet habits that contribute a lot to childhood obesity in a family. Children of all ages spend half of their day in a school; therefore, school food is a very important part of children’s diet. It is not a big secret that the food which children eat every day at school is fast food. Furtheremore, everybody knows fast food is highly processed, and unhealthy in all its forms, so what children receieve is food made of off-the-shelf components, says Jamie Oliver (2010). A simillar situation at home, at first glance it is so convenient for parents to make purchases at supermarkets, buy a half-finished products and spent less time on cooking. Nevertheless, that food usually does not contain any nutrients; as a result the children’s body doesn’t get all useful vitamins to develop properly, so the metabolism can’t work at its full capacity or burn calories as well. It has been argued by Michael Wieting (2007) that obese children drink much more sugary drinks and eat more fries, potato chips, meat substitutes with ketchup and mayonnaise, and eat white bread. These all contribute to the higher calories, sugar, and fat intake. In the end, it is clear that childhood obesity can be caused by three main reasons such as genetics, lack of activity, and nourishment at school and at home. Genetics could influence how the body copes with calories, but if a child’s parents don’t take care over their progeny’s diet oth at school and at home, and also don’t organize child’s activity, he or she might gain weight easily in a very little time. Not only parents have to take care about their children, also everybody should remember that childhood obesity is becoming a dangerous epidemic in many countries, and everybody’s task is to prevent obesity, because children are our future. Bibliography Daneman, D. , Hamilton, J. (2010). Causes and consequences of childhood obesity. Retrieved from aboutkidshealth. a/En/News/Columns/PaediatriciansCorner/Pages/Causes-and-consequences-of-childhood-obesity. aspx Michael, W. (2008). Cause and Effect in Childhood Obesity: Solutions for a National Epidemic. The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 108(10)), 545-552. Retrieved from jaoa. org/content/108/10/545. full Marcus, L. , Baron, A. (n. d. ). Childhood Obesity: The Effects on Physical and Mental Health. Retrieved from aboutourkids. org/articles/childhood_obesity_effects_physical_mental_health Oliver, J. (2010). Jamie Olivers TED Prize wish: Teach every child about food [Video File]. Retrieved from ted. com/talks/jamie_oliver. html Pulic Health Agency of Canada. (2009). Obesity in Canada – Snapshot. Retrieved from phac-aspc. gc. ca/publicat/2009/oc/pdf/oc-eng. pdf Tremblay, M. S. , Willmas, J. D. (2003). Is the Canadian childhood obesity epidemic related to physical inactivity? (Vol. 27, pp. 1100-1105). Retrieved from http://chaausa. nonprofitoffice. com/vertical/Sites/%7B0635C236-197E-47C6-8FBB-A80A08D4715B%7D/uploads/%7BB25D71A3-6FC3-4315-A19C-B8B476011EB2%7D. PDF

Learn About the History of the Microphone

Learn About the History of the Microphone A microphone is a device for converting acoustic power into electric power with essentially similar wave characteristics. These devices convert sound waves into electrical voltages that are subsequently converted back into sound waves and amplified through speakers. Today, microphones are most often associated with the music and entertainment industries, but the devices date back as far as the 1600s when scientists began seeking out ways in which they could amplify sound. The 1600s 1665: While the word â€Å"microphone† wasn’t used until the 19th century, English physicist and inventor Robert Hooke is credited with developing an acoustic cup and string style phone and is considered a pioneer in the field of transmitting sound across distances. The 1800s 1827: Sir Charles Wheatstone was the first person to coin the phrase microphone. A renowned English physicist and inventor, Wheatstone is best known for inventing the telegraph. His interests were varied, and he devoted some of his time the study of acoustics during the 1820s. Wheatstone was among the first scientists to formally recognize that sound was transmitted by waves through mediums. This knowledge led him to explore ways of transmitting sounds from one place to another, even over long distances. He worked on a device that could amplify weak sounds, which he called a microphone. 1876: Emile Berliner invented what many consider the first modern microphone while working with famed inventor Thomas Edison. Berliner, a German-born American, was best known for his invention of the Gramophone and the gramophone record, which he patented in 1887. After seeing a Bell Company demonstration at the U.S. Centennial Exposition, Berliner was inspired to find ways to improve the newly invented telephone. The Bell Telephone Companys management was impressed with the device he came up with, a telephone voice transmitter, and bought Berliners microphone patent for $50,000. (Berliners original patent was overturned and later credited to Edison.) 1878: Just a couple years after Berliner and Edison created their microphone, David Edward Hughes, a British-American inventor/music professor, developed the first carbon microphone. Hughess microphone was the early prototype for the various carbon microphones still in use today. The 20th Century 1915: The development of the vacuum tube ampliï ¬ er helped improve the volume output for devices, including the microphone. 1916: The condenser microphone, often referred to as a capacitor or an electrostatic microphone, was patented by inventor E.C. Wente while working at Bell Laboratories. Wente had been tasked with improving the audio quality for telephones but his innovations also enhanced the microphone. 1920s: As broadcast radio became one of the premier sources for news and entertainment around the world, the demand for improved microphone technology grew. In response, the RCA Company developed the first ribbon microphone, the PB-31/PB-17, for radio broadcasting. 1928: In Germany, Georg Neumann and Co. was founded and rose to fame for its microphones. Georg Neumann designed the first commercial condenser microphone, nicknamed â€Å"the bottle† because of its shape. 1931: Western Electric marketed its 618 Electrodynamic Transmitter, the ï ¬ rst dynamic microphone. 1957: Raymond A. Litke, an electrical engineer with Educational Media Resources and San Jose State College  invented and filed a patent for the first wireless microphone. It was designed for multimedia applications including television,  radio, and higher education. 1959: The Unidyne III microphone was the first uni-directional device designed to collect sound from the top of the microphone, rather than the side. This set a new level of design for microphones in the future. 1964: Bell Laboratories researchers James West and Gerhard Sessler received patent no. 3,118,022 for the electroacoustic transducer, an electret microphone. The electret microphone offered greater reliability and higher precision at a lower cost and with a smaller size. It revolutionized the microphone industry, with almost one billion units manufactured each year. 1970s: Both dynamic and condenser mics were further enhanced, allowing for a lower sound level sensitivity and a clearer sound recording. A number of miniature mics were also developed during this decade. 1983: Sennheiser developed the first clip-on microphones: one that was a directional mic (MK# 40) and one that was designed for the studio (MKE 2). These microphones are still popular today. 1990s: Neumann introduced the KMS 105, a condenser model designed for live performances, setting a new standard for quality. The 21st Century 2000s: MEMS (Microelectromechanical systems) microphones begin making inroads in portable devices including cell phones, headsets, and laptops. The trend for miniature mics continues with applications such as wearable devices, smart home, and automobile technology, 2010: The Eigenmike was released, a microphone that is composed of several high-quality microphones arranged on the surface of a solid sphere, allowing the sound to be captured from a variety of directions. This allowed for greater control when editing and rendering sound. Sources Leslie, Clara Louise,  Who Invented the Microphone?  Radio Broadcast, 1926Who Invented the Microphone: How Emile Berliner came up with the invention and how it has impacted the broadcasting industry. The History Engine. Digital Scholarship Lab.  The University of Richmond,  © 2008–2015  Shechmeister, Matthew. The Birth of the Microphone: How Sound Became Signal. Wired.com. January 11, 2011Bartelbaugh, Ron. Trends in Technology: Microphones. RadioWorld. December 1, 2010

Essay Analysis of George Orwells A Hanging

Essay Analysis of George Orwells A Hanging This assignment offers guidelines on how to compose  a  critical analysis of A Hanging, a classic narrative essay by George Orwell. Preparation Carefully read George Orwells narrative essay A Hanging. Then, to test your understanding of the essay, take our multiple-choice reading quiz. (When youre done, be sure to compare your answers with those that follow the quiz.) Finally, reread Orwells essay, jotting down any thoughts or questions that come to mind. Composition Following the guidelines below, compose a soundly supported critical essay of about 500 to 600 words on George Orwells essay A Hanging. First, consider this brief commentary on the purpose of Orwells essay: A Hanging is not a polemical work. Orwells essay is intended to express by example what it means to destroy a healthy, conscious man. The reader never finds out what crime was committed by the condemned man, and the narrative isnt primarily concerned with providing an abstract argument regarding the death penalty. Instead, through action, description, and dialogue, Orwell focuses on a single event that illustrates the mystery, the unspeakable wrongness, of cutting a life short when it is in full tide. Now, with this observation in mind (an observation that you should feel free to either agree with or disagree with), identify, illustrate, and discuss the key elements in Orwells essay that contribute to its dominant theme. Tips Keep in mind that youre composing your critical analysis for someone who has already read A Hanging. That means you dont need to summarize the essay. Be sure, however, to support all your observations with specific references to Orwells text. As a general rule, keep quotations brief. Never drop a quotation into your paper without commenting on the significance of that quotation. To develop material for your body paragraphs, draw on your reading notes and on points suggested by the multiple-choice quiz questions. Consider, in particular, the importance of point of view, setting, and the roles served by particular characters (or character types). Revision and Editing After completing a first or second draft, rewrite your composition. Be sure to read your work aloud when you revise, edit, and proofread. You may hear problems in your writing that you cant see.

Graduate Admission Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Graduate Admission - Essay Example de is a huge cause for alarm and in third word countries the levels are reaching catastrophic levels in areas such as Asia, Africa and parts of Europe. In particular I have seen the results of a worsening chronic and infectious diseases outbreak in Haiti following an earthquake which has left 1.3 million people homeless. Haiti has a population of 9.7 million people and only 1 in 5 persons has a job. Malnutrition is a massive problem and there are 200,000 people living with HIV. Only half of the children are protected against basic diseases such as measles and diphtheria through vaccination. I have seen vision on news items and documentaryçâ€" ´ of the work being done by doctors and nurses in these areas and I have developed a strong desire to be part of that environment. I truly long to be able to help those the people in areas such as Haiti. Pregnancy induced hypertension(PIH) or Toxemia is a field that I have developed a personal interest in as it was a condition that I suffered from during my own pregnancy. I can see myself being of special assistance when caring for pregnant women in countries such as Haiti and therefore have a deep seated need to learn more about Hypertension during pregnancy and its treatment, this is also a driving force toward my ambitions. These areas would be an ideal place for me to perform community service in schools. Sex education in these third word countries where sexually transmitted diseases are rampart would be essential in helping their society to progress. I would love to be involved with the teaching of these children about these diseases, the benefits of abstinence and safe sex. I have a long term plan, and this isnt just a school boy type dream to one day be a fireman but a definite plan in my life, to run my own clinic in a third world country. I would like to work with full autonomy in a clinic were I am caring for troubled and unfortunate people such those in Haiti. This is a situation which I would totally love to be

Benefits of Waiting to Go To College after High School Research Paper

Benefits of Waiting to Go To College after High School - Research Paper Example Individuals with quality basic education are capable of managing themselves and their families. Basic education can be regarded as education up to the completion of high school level. After completing high school education, one has two options from which to make a decision. The individual can opt to take on employment opportunities for the high school graduates. Similarly, the individual can opt to proceed to college to pursue a four-year degree course. The college education adds value to the skills and expertise of the individual and it is apparent that after college, the individual is likely to earn far much more than high school graduates do. College education gives a student competitive advantage over the high school graduates (University of North Texas, para.2). However, this is only to the extent that the student has adequate financial and psychological preparation for the college study. Having chosen to proceed to college, an individual is again faced with two options. The stu dent can proceed to the college immediately after high school. Traditionally, it is expected that students should proceed with their college education immediately after high school. ... Rather, the student is, in several occasions, compelled to take a break before joining college in order to make some financial preparation. The two options of joining college immediately after high school or waiting for some time before joining college each has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of one translate into the disadvantages of the other option. However, it will be apparent that given the sound grounds upon which a students waits for some time before joining college, this can be a good option. This paper holds that in as much as it has been traditionally adopted that students should proceed to college immediately after high school, it may not be appropriate to do this on weak financial grounds. Taking on employment first would be better. Thesis Although tradition expects students to go to college directly after high school, it does not make financial sense given today’s economic climate. Benefits of waiting to join college after High School It has been observed that after completing high school education, a student may wait for some time before joining college for undergraduate studies. This waiting has a number of advantages to the student and the responsible members of the family (parents, guardians, or sponsors). Firstly, college education is increasingly becoming expensive. The tuition fee and other expenses in these institutions are far much higher than the expenses in high school education. After struggling to finance the child’s education right from Kindergarten all the way to the high school, and given the harsh financial climate that currently rocks the globe, it may be cumbersome to have the child proceed to college education. If the

Revising this qualitative research paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Revising this qualitative research paper - Essay Example Exactly how the elderly cope with chronic illness, and how they develop their own self care strategies in response to those illnesses, is extremely significant: the impact of the disease can be attenuated by proper self care. In the lives of most elderly people, self-care not only can foster the individual to develop his or her potential under the limitations of disease, it can be helpful in keeping independence and initiative, enhancing the sense of control over health, and reaching the best state of physiological, psychological, and social well being (Connelly 1987). Given the significance of the area, one research question is particularly important: What are the experiences of self care in the chronically ill elderly The primary objective of this paper is to discuss the life experiences of self-care in this class of individual. First, I will provide a contextual background by defining self care and chronic disease, explaining the general significance of the issue, and then relating those concepts to the elderly living in Taiwan. Secondly, I will provide an evaluation of why the phenomenological research approach is the most appropriate qualitative research method, and offer a critique of the results of other studies on the subject. Finally, I will describe the steps that could be taken to conduct a qualitative study and propose why these steps are appropriate in answering the research question. Contextual Background Self Care. The concept of self care developments has been an area of concern in various academic departments such as medicine, nursing, psychology, sociology, and health education (Gantz, 1990). Each academic discipline has focused upon different aspects of self-care from its own perspective of what is important or significant. The following are viewpoints from medical, health education, and nursing perspectives are more directly related to nursing care, and further introduce the concept of self-care. In the field of medicine, Levin (1976) demonstrates it has long been believed that self-care is a process which operates in favor of one's health. Self care promotes health while it prevents, discovers, and treats diseases. It is considered a vital part of preliminary care in the nursing system. Vickery (1986) believes that self-care is constructive behavior and an individual's way to pay attention to medical issues. In other words, self care is a behavioral expression that focuses on medical problems or physical symptoms; and it also displaces nursing care obligations. Behavioural changes of patients are, for the most part, concentrated on following medical advice (Gantz, 1990). Health education coordinates individuals' regulative and corrective behaviors by making use of the education process and behavior-change strategies (Parcel, Bartlett, and Bruhn, 1986). For example, under applied stress or self-adjusting skills and self-handling behavior, correction skills help change living modes (Gantz, 1990), promote

Question answering on linked data Research Paper

Question answering on linked data - Research Paper Example Two searches are available, Navigation Search and Research Search. In navigational search, the user accesses the search engine as a navigation instrument to navigate to a particular targeted document. Semantic Search is not used in navigational searches. In Research Searching, the user feeds the search engine with a phrase is proposed to symbolize an object about which the user attempts to gather information. Rather than PageRank algorithm in Google, Semantic Web Search uses semantics to create highly pertinent searching results. This Search method can be used to retrieve the information from the data resource like ontology. Ontology1 is a technology used to facilitate the field knowledge to improve the query time used in Semantic Question Answering system. Data linking systems apply some of the systems identified in order to interweave Web data described in RDF. The following analysis studies some systems performing both automated and semi-automated data linking. Aqua log is able to learn the users language in order to improve the knowledge by the time. The user’s learning method is good in a way that it uses ontology reasoning to study and learn more general patterns, which could then be use again for the questions with analogous context.2 In this system Linguistic Component (LC) is used to change the NL questions into Query-triple format and Relation Similarity Service (RSS). The data model is triple based like {Subject or Object} type. The presentation is based on accuracy, recall and also failure types are referred individually. Averages of about 64 % of consecutive answers are retrieved from ontology with closed environment. ORAKEL used for computing planned answers of user query. It processes based questions as rational query type and information is symbolized with F-Logic and onto broker form. This system is

Recycled toothbrushes make sense Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Recycled toothbrushes make sense - Assignment Example Therefore, it simplifies its logistics and supply chain management and makes it low-cost. Hudson could send motivators to schools and colleges, to build awareness amongst the young people regarding the advantages of using recycled plastic products. These personnel should make concerted effort to project the usage of recycled plastic products as the hallmarks of an alternate lifestyle, which is not only eco-friendly, but also modern and trendy. As Hudson has access to desirable raw material for free, he can set the price of its products competitively lower than the comparable regular products (Zimring 45). Availability of low-cost, eco-friendly products will certainly add to his customer base. Hudson should make it a point to educate the prospective customers that the raw material for his products comes from the packaging of branded food stuff, and is hygienic and safe. This will dilute the lack of acceptance that some customers may feel about products like recycled toothbrushes. Answer: It is vital for Recycline to understand that selling recycled products is not merely about products, but offering an alternate life style. This eco-friendly life style is not only increasing in popularity, but its followers have strong emotional and ethical attachments associated with it. So, at present Recycline is basically a small contributor to this new but fast spreading way of life. As the company grows larger and as it gets access to desirable capital, and customer base, it could exploit its brand appeal to enter into industries that project eco-friendliness and sustainability. Such industries could be like organic food, recycled paper, herbal medicines, etc. The primary objective of the company should be to use its growth and brand equity to carve out a larger share from the market for eco-friendly products and

The Minister's Black Veil by Nathaniel Hawthorne Research Proposal

The Minister's Black Veil by Nathaniel Hawthorne - Research Proposal Example veil, a message regarding the power of the symbol itself as a symbol and the importance of considering individual interpretation as a part of this meaning. Nathanial Hawthorne wrote from a deep immersion in the Puritan world, having had ancestors that landed on North American soil with a Bible in one hand and a sword in the other, ready to tame the wilderness (Swisher, 1996). His hometown of Salem, Massachusetts was the setting for the most brutal witch trials documented in this country and his education reinforced the beliefs espoused by such trials and the religion that made them possible. These influences figured strongly in his writings, often forming the basis of his tales. This is true whether he was writing short stories or longer novels, whether he was writing of times long past or of a more contemporary period and whether he set his stories in his homeland or moved them all the way across the sea into Italy. The way that Hawthorne used this influence reveals a deep questioning of the validity of the beliefs to which he’d been raised to adhere (Erlich, 1984). Few of his stories offer straight-forward tales that are easil y understood on first reading. Some, like his short story â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil†, leave a great deal open for speculation. The meaning of the minister’s black veil has been debated since the story was first printed, but it seems clear that the veil is intended to symbolize something much greater than a quick assessment might imply. The story itself seems simple enough. It opens as the village people are called to the church for a normal Sunday mass and the minister emerges wearing a heavy black veil. The veil permits his mouth and chin to be seen, being just long enough to be touched by his breath, but keeps his eyes constantly shrouded from the rest of the world. The congregation responds to this strange appearance of their minister as he takes his place in the church, delivers his sermon and then attempts to

Recycled toothbrushes make sense Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Recycled toothbrushes make sense - Assignment Example Therefore, it simplifies its logistics and supply chain management and makes it low-cost. Hudson could send motivators to schools and colleges, to build awareness amongst the young people regarding the advantages of using recycled plastic products. These personnel should make concerted effort to project the usage of recycled plastic products as the hallmarks of an alternate lifestyle, which is not only eco-friendly, but also modern and trendy. As Hudson has access to desirable raw material for free, he can set the price of its products competitively lower than the comparable regular products (Zimring 45). Availability of low-cost, eco-friendly products will certainly add to his customer base. Hudson should make it a point to educate the prospective customers that the raw material for his products comes from the packaging of branded food stuff, and is hygienic and safe. This will dilute the lack of acceptance that some customers may feel about products like recycled toothbrushes. Answer: It is vital for Recycline to understand that selling recycled products is not merely about products, but offering an alternate life style. This eco-friendly life style is not only increasing in popularity, but its followers have strong emotional and ethical attachments associated with it. So, at present Recycline is basically a small contributor to this new but fast spreading way of life. As the company grows larger and as it gets access to desirable capital, and customer base, it could exploit its brand appeal to enter into industries that project eco-friendliness and sustainability. Such industries could be like organic food, recycled paper, herbal medicines, etc. The primary objective of the company should be to use its growth and brand equity to carve out a larger share from the market for eco-friendly products and

Aviation Safety Reporting Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Aviation Safety Reporting Systems - Essay Example Correct analysis of this data would enable people to catch a problem before it actually happens, and be proactive in their respective area of work. It also works in two additional dimensions which are very crucial. The ASRS finds out the problems that are there in the MAS, and then it gives recommendations for future procedures, operations, facilities, and equipment. This is by far the most important role of any reporting system, which would not just end up as a datasheet at the end of the day, but would also prove to be the foundation for future policies. Since the advent of industrialization, nobody has liked inspections. However, in order to ensure the safety of both man and machine, this is mandatory. The Air Safety Week (2004) presents the view that rigorous inspections are actually costing lots of time, effort and of course, money to the companies. But then again, this is considered to be an inevitable requirement by the regulation authorities these days. With security and safety being paramount for both customers and the companies, this is a cost that has to be paid. There are three major areas which the FAA feels need to have a consistent and continuous inspection for best standards of safety and quality. Firstly, the Electrical system safety has to be ensured. ... 3. Training programs regarding aviation safety Mech (2004) explains the requirement for a transformation change in aviation safety concepts and understanding. It is elaborated, that no matter how much and how many aviation safety training programs are conducted for the personnel, the actual difference will be made only when the philosophy about this is changed in the minds of the people who matter. It is the time for a change in the culture of how we look at safety. Safety should not be merely prevention from accidents. Safety is an intrinsic value, which comes naturally to human beings and needs not be taught as such. What needs to be ingrained is the value for scientific systems of safety to be in place, where reports, inspection and investigations are respected as the need of the system, without which effective safety will not be possible for the wellbeing of the personnel. This change shall be possible only through the change in leadership style of the people at the helm of affairs. Aviation safety workshops have concluded overwhelmingly, that the administration is the only element in the system that can bring about and sustain a cultural change. This cultural change is the backbone of all aviation safety training that is to be conducted in the future. 4. A recent air transport investigation that is still in progress This is about a most recent crash, which had three fatalities, including the commercial pilot and two passengers. This is as reported by NTSB on 'Landings.com' (2007). On April 15, 2007, at 1210, a Beech BE 35-B33, N9556Y, impacted the terrain while on a low approach while landing towards Sedona Airport, Sedona, Arizona. All three humans in the flight received

My Growth As A Writer Essay Example for Free

My Growth As A Writer Essay Writing has seemed to be a difficult process for me over the years. This is why it was my choice to enroll myself in creative writing classes over the last 6 years. The most difficult process for me in writing is generating ideas. You can learn to use proper structures for sentences but sadly creativity is something you can learn. In my play, The Doctor and the Patient, I displayed my best writing, and it gives a good example of what I have learned in this class. â€Å"THE PATIENT: Look,  man—we’re all different. Each individual can’t be typed into a group. All minds—souls, even— are different. But we all have something in common: we’re human. And it’s beautiful. † Is an allegory, often used in poetry. Due to the depressed nature of the patient, he finds something that can bring light into his world. Though he is stubborn, and rejects medicating and therapy sessions, he finds a false sense of security. My style of writing is usually freeform, in my spare time I usually write  post-apocalyptic situations, dark comedy, or serious. I have grown majorly at imagery and developing characters and dialogue. The tone of my writing is usually mellow, and flows rather quickly. And I have learned to construct a story arc that does not change too erratically. Future goals of mine would to get a few of my works published in a few small newsletters. Overall, I think my writing has improved drastically, I have learned how to style many different types of stories and writings.

Airline Safety :: Free Essay Writer

Airline Safety What Should the Regulations be Regarding Airline Safety? Introduction It was early in the morning, warm & sunny. We had the day off from school for some reason, but I can't remember why. I was riding my bike in the street with my friend, Mike, about 4 blocks from my home in the North Park area of San Diego when I heard a faint blast, looked up and saw a jetliner falling out of the sky on fire. I can't remember thinking anything except "It's going to hit my house". Then I realized there were probably a lot of people on the plane, and was immediately so scared I began to cry. Then I didn't hear anything until the plane hit the ground. Watching that plane on impact is a sensation I hope I never have to relive again. The aircraft was diving at a steep angle and one wing was on fire, with flames shooting everywhere. I remember the plane disappearing behind some tall trees and then feeling the ground shake like an earthquake, and the deafening roar of the impact and following explosion. It was an absolute nightmare. It seemed like the entire neighborhoo d was on fire. The TV stations & news reporters were converging on the scene in what seemed like only a matter of minutes, but must've been at least half an hour. I think I just stood there talking to people for the longest time, but I don't remember anything they said. There were only distant sirens. In a short period of time the police and several residents had blocked off the streets to traffic, and I remember hearing people screaming in the background, and others yelling to get help. I also remember the trees being on fire and this incredible column of black smoke rising into the clear air, and the smell of jet fuel burning. All these people - some Firefighters, some Police Officers, and some ordinary people - were carrying injured people and passengers into the private school across the street. I didn't know then, but some of them were dead. I remember how weird it was that the freeway traffic was completely stopped on I-805, which was only a block from the impact site, and it was eerily quiet except for the distant chaos. My friend Mike disappeared. I found out he was okay, but he had gotten scared.

Essay --

When you dial 911 for an emergency, the outcome may very well depend on the 411 – the quality of information available on your condition and ways to treat it. Everybody will experience an Emergency Room visit at some point in their life, go through the extensive admittance process and will be expected to wait for a considerable amount of time before they get treated. The treatment might not come right away depending on the severity of the injury. But have you ever wondered why this always happens? It is obvious that hospitals are always busy; you’ll see nurses always running around and hear doctors’ names being called on the PA, all of this caused by the endless amount of people that get admitted every second of the day. What people aren’t aware of is that there’s an uprising problem that’s present throughout the whole healthcare system. The healthcare industry generates massive amounts of data every day, part of which is sourced and document ed from ancient times. Not every bit of information generated has been in a format readily understood by people in the medical field. To help better acquire, document and understand this information, and to create practical guidelines and applications in today’s healthcare industry, Health Informatics has been created as a discipline. Many medical informatics systems have been developed for maintaining patient records in the doctor’s offices, clinics, and individual hospitals, and in many instances systems have been developed for distributing information among multiple hospitals and agencies. But much remains to be done to make such information systems maximally useful, issues surrounding confidentiality and ethics plus the lack of funds and training pose as the biggest challenges. The advance... ...tics to Improve Environmental Health Practice† published in the Journal of Environmental Health, asserts that the Environmental Health Specialists Network Information System (EHSNIS) program has been implemented by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for Environmental Health to serve as a model of how health informatics would translate into the health environmental field. The EHSNIS’ main purpose is to accumulate data from numerous areas to track of a potential â€Å"foodborne and water-borne illness outbreak† (44). On the local to global scale an integrated informatics system would enable health professionals to detect and track natural health emergencies. More importantly this emphasizes on how the collaboration of two different organizations in making of an informatics system that could detect of a potential outbreak should serve as a model

Prelude to Foundation Author’s Note

When I wrote â€Å"Foundation,† which appeared in the May 1942 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, I had no idea that I had begun a series of stories that would eventually grow into six volumes and a total of 650,000 words (so far). Nor did I have any idea that it would be unified with my series of short stories and novels involving robots and my novels involving the Galactic Empire for a grand total (so far) of fourteen volumes and a total of about 1,450,000 words. You will see, if you study the publication dates of these books, that there was a twenty-five-year hiatus between 1957 and 1982, during which I did not add to this series. This was not because I had stopped writing. Indeed, I wrote full-speed throughout the quarter century, but I wrote other things. That I returned to the series in 1982 was not my own notion but was the result of a combination of pressures from readers and publishers that eventually became overwhelming. In any case, the situation has become sufficiently complicated for me to feel that the readers might welcome a kind of guide to the series, since they were not written in the order in which (perhaps) they should be read. The fourteen books, all published by Doubleday, offer a kind of history of the future, which is, perhaps, not completely consistent, since I did not plan consistency to begin with. The chronological order of the books, in terms of future history (and not of publication date), is as follows: The Complete Robot (1982). This is a collection of thirty-one robot short stories published between 1940 and 1976 and includes every story in my earlier collection I Robot (1950). Only one robot short story has been written since this collection appeared. That is â€Å"Robot Dreams,† which has not yet appeared in any Doubleday collection. The Caves of Steel (1954). This is the first of my robot novels. The Naked Sun (1957). The second robot novel. The Robots of Dawn (1983). The third robot novel. Robots and Empire (1985). The fourth robot novel. The Currents of Space (1952). This is the first of my Empire novels. The Stars, Like Dust (1951). The second Empire novel. Pebble in the Sky (1950). The third Empire novel. Prelude to Foundation (1988). This is the first Foundation novel (although it is the latest written, so far). Foundation (1951). The second Foundation novel. Actually, it is a collection of four stories, originally published between 1942 and 1944, plus an introductory section written for the book in 1949. Foundation and Empire (1952). The third Foundation novel, made up of two stories, originally published in 1945. Second Foundation (1953). The fourth Foundation novel, made up of two stories, originally published in 1948 and 1949. Foundations Edge (1982). The fifth Foundation novel. Foundation and Earth (1983). The sixth Foundation novel. Will I add additional books to the series? I might. There is room for a book between Robots and Empire (5) and The Currents of Space (6) and between Prelude to Foundation (9) and Foundation (10) and of course between others as well. And then I can follow Foundation and Earth (14) with additional volumes-as many as I like. Naturally, there's got to be some limit, for I don't expect to live forever, but I do intend to hang on as long as possible.

15 Basic Appeals

â€Å"Advertising: 15 Basic Appeals† by Jib Fowles (from â€Å"Mass Advertising As Social Forecast†) 1. Need for sex- surprisingly, Fowles found that only 2 percent of the television ads, he surveyed used this appeal. It may  be too blatant, he concluded, and often detracts from the product. 2. Need for affiliation- the largest number of ads use this approach: you are looking for friendship? Advertisers can also use this negatively, to make you worry that you'll lose friends if you don't use a certain product. 3. Need to nurture- every time you see a puppy or a kitten or a child, the appeal is to your paternal or maternal instincts. . Need for guidance- a father or mother figure can appeal to your desire for someone to care for you, s you won't have to worry. Betty Crocker is a good example. 5. Need to aggress- we all have had a desire to get even, and some ads give you this satisfaction. 6. Need to achieve- the ability to accomplish something difficult and succeed id entifies the product with winning. Sports figures as spokespersons project this image. 7. Need to dominate- the power we lack is what we can look for in a commercial â€Å"master the possibilities. † 8. Need for prominence- we want to be admired and respected; to have high social status.Tasteful china and classic diamonds offer this potential. 9. Need for attention- we want people to notice us; we want to be looked at. Cosmetics are a natural for this approach. 10. Need for autonomy- within a crowded environment, we want to be singled out, to be a â€Å"breed apart. † This can also be used negatively: you may be left out if you don't use a particular product. 11. Need to escape- flight is very appealing; you can imagine adventures you cannot have; the idea of escape is pleasurable. 12. Need to feel safe- to be free from threats, to be secure is the appeal of many insurance and bank ads. 3. Need for aesthetic sensations-beauty attracts us, and classic art or dance makes us feel creative, enhanced. 14. Need to satisfy curiosity-facts support our belief that information is quantifiable and numbers and diagrams make our choices seem scientific. 15. Psychological needs- Fowles defines sex (item no. 1) as a biological need, and so he classifies our need to sleep, eat, and drink in this category. Advertisers for juicy pizza are especially appealing late at night. Source: Media Impact Introduction to Mass Media (4th Ed) Author: Shirley Biagi,   Wadsworth

Objective Morality Essay

My purpose in writing this is to argue for the existence of an objective morality based entirely on rational and scientific reasoning. By â€Å"objective morality† I do not simply mean that morality exists in the sense that various societies consider various actions to be immoral. What I mean is that certain actions are inherently right or wrong regardless of what any society thinks about them. In other words, I mean that there is an â€Å"objective morality† which exists independently of human beliefs and human civilization. There are many people who have the opinion that it is not possible to believe in such an objective morality without also believing in concepts such as God or an eternal soul. I believe that they are wrong. I will attempt to show that an objective morality exists and that this morality is the same regardless of which religion, if any, is correct. Many people believe that without a religious framework, the only possible conclusion is that all morality is nothing more than a human construct without any objective existence. In other words, what morality a person or a culture accepts is like picking a favorite flavor of ice cream. Some individuals prefer strawberry ice cream, other individuals prefer chocolate, and no person’s preference is â€Å"more correct† than another’s. In a similar manner, they argue, different individuals and different societies have various favorite moral belief systems, and just as with ice cream, no particular set of moral beliefs is â€Å"more correct† than any other. A common argument for this type of thinking is the following. Throughout history, different cultures have had vastly different moral systems. In fact, on almost any moral issue, it appears that there is absolutely no agreement or consensus shared by even a majority of the cultures throughout history. In addition to this, there appears to be no way to prove the superiority of one moral system over another using logic alone. So the only way in which one moral system can actually be the correct one is if religion is the tie breaker. That is, whichever value system the â€Å"correct religion† advocates is the correct value system. Otherwise, there is no way to decide between them. I believe that this type of argument is easily refuted. In order to argue for the existence of an objective morality, I will have to do more than just point out the flaws in lines of reasoning such as this. I will have to provide my own arguments that an objective morality does exist, and I will have to discuss where this morality â€Å"comes from†. I will also have to explain a process by which we can attempt to determine what it is. This is what I intend to do. I would first, though, like to take some time to point out some of the errors in the reasoning above. There are two points that the argument above makes. The first regards the lack of consensus regarding morality. The second involves the inability to prove the superiority of one moral system over another using logic alone. It is true that throughout history, different cultures have held vastly different beliefs about morality. These cultures have also held vastly different beliefs regarding natural physical laws. Consider, for example, the belief in gravity. Currently, it is believed that the phenomena which we call gravity is the result of the fact that objects with mass cause a curvature in â€Å"space-time†. Under this framework, we believe that a clock located in a high gravitational field will appear to run slower than an identical clock in a region with low gravity. We also believe, under this framework, that the path of something without mass, such as a beam of light, is affected by gravity. This was not always the case. At the beginning of the twentieth century, for example, it was believed that the phenomena of gravity is the result of the fact that all objects with mass exert an attractive force on each other. According to this view, the path of a beam of light should be unaffected by gravity and identical clocks should run at the same speed everywhere. This had not always been the case either. At an earlier time it was believed that the natural place for objects such as rocks was on the ground while the natural place for things like steam was up in the sky. According to this perspective, rocks fell to the ground while steam rose because everything tends to go to its natural place. If we do a more thorough examination, including all the cultures throughout all of history, we will find an even larger variety of opinions regarding the law of gravity. This does not, though, mean that there is no objective law of gravity which exists independently of human society. The beliefs in gravity which I described are attempts by human societies to approximate reality. Clearly, some approximations are better than others. Perhaps the current belief in the curvature of space-time is also incorrect and will later be replaced by an even better approximation. However, most people would have no problem agreeing that the curvature of space-time explanation of gravity is a better approximation to reality than the explanations which came before it. All that this shows is that even though different cultures hold very different beliefs about a certain issue, this does not necessarily imply that there is no objective reality behind these beliefs. The claim which I will be arguing for is that this is the same for morality as it is for gravity. All the moral beliefs which came before us and all the moral beliefs today are, in exactly the same way as in the case of gravity, approximations to the objective reality which exists independently of human beings. Although probably none of these approximations correspond to reality exactly, as with gravity, some approximations are better than others. For example, the value system of a society which condones slavery but condemns cannibalism is incorrect, but it is a better approximation to reality than that of a society which condones both slavery and cannibalism. The claim that no one has yet been able to prove the correctness of a particular moral system through logic alone is also correct. However, if we continue the analogy with gravity, we will realize that no one has also been able to prove the existence of gravity through logic alone either. The reason we believe that a rock will fall to the ground is because that is what we have always observed when we have let go of rocks in the past. There is a little more to it than that, of course, but not much. Our current theory of gravity predicts many specific phenomena. These include rocks falling to the ground, planets orbiting the Sun, the creation of ocean tides by the moon, and identical clocks running at different speeds. The only reason why we do believe in our current theory of gravity is because every time we have observed these phenomena, what we saw corresponded with what the theory predicted. If we were deprived of these observations, we would have no reason to believe in gravity at all. There is no way, using logic alone, that a person can prove the existence of gravity or the superiority of one theory of gravity to another. It is only by using logical reasoning in combination with observation that a person can argue for the existence of gravity. Even then, it is not be possible to do so with total 100% assurance. The fact that the current theory of gravity has always made correct predictions in the past does not guarantee that the theory will give correct predictions tomorrow. What a person can do, though, is to show, by using logical reasoning in combination with observations, that our theory of gravity is most likely true. This is what I intend to do for morality. There are, of course, some differences in arguing for an objective moral law and an objective gravitational law. Perhaps one of the most significant is that it is possible to construct equipment which quantitatively measure the effects of gravity. That is, it is possible to construct a speed detector that tells you that a rock is moving with a velocity of ten meters per second at a certain moment in time. On the other hand, it is not currently possible to construct a morality meter which tells you that a certain action is wrong with an immorality of ten immorality units. Nevertheless, this is an obstacle which I believe can easily be overcome. I will explain the way in which I overcome this obstacle a little bit later. For now, I would just like to point out that the fact that we can not build such a detector does not automatically imply that an objective morality does not exist. It was not that long ago that we were unable to detect or measure the existence of electrons. This, however, does not imply that electrons did not exist in that time period. Electrons (objectively) existed regardless of whether or not we could build devices which detected them. The same, I believe, is true for morality. I have divided my discussion into four parts. The first part is this introduction. In the second part, I attempt to show that it is objectively wrong to torture another person for pleasure, and I discuss where this objective morality â€Å"comes from†. In this second part, I do not deal with something even as mildly complicated as torturing one person to prevent the suffering of another. Since I am trying to show that an objective morality exists independently of human beliefs, just showing that there exists one action which is objectively wrong should be sufficient to demonstrate my position that some objective morality exists. However, just believing that an objective morality exists should not be enough to satisfy anyone’s inquiry into the matter. In part three, I discuss how we can determine what this objective morality says about controversial moral issues. As in the case of gravity, I only claim to have a method to find good approximations to this objective moral law, not to get it exactly right the first time. By spending more time applying this method to a particular moral issue, we will obtain better approximations. I give examples of how this method can be applied to issues such as abortion, war, animal rights, and forcing your morality on others. I also discuss if an action which does not harm anyone can be immoral and if it is ever correct to say that one life is â€Å"worth more† than another. In addition, I give a method for establishing a belief about if another being possesses consciousness, which is useful in attempting to determine if we have an obligation to act morally towards that being. The fourth part is relatively independent of the rest of my discussion. In part four, I briefly discuss other alternative views about the nature and origin of morality. I touch on several topics. I discuss how a belief in God can be reconciled with the position which I advocate and why I think that it is not logically consistent to hold the opinion that a belief in God is necessary in order to believe in an objective morality. I discuss moral systems based on ideas like karma and perfect justice which are often associated with reincarnation. I also discuss a few other views regarding morality and what I think their flaws are. I talk about what I think is wrong with thinking of morality as just a social behavior which evolved to help our survival. I also discuss why I think that it is not possible to successfully base the foundation of a society on self interest or a social contract. I also mention why morality is much more than simply attempting to maximize a certain quantity such as happiness. Nowhere in my presentation do I discuss whether any particular religion is correct or incorrect. I limit my presentation to discussing the development of a belief in an objective morality without appealing to religious teachings. I do, though, show how my position can be reconciled with various religious beliefs. I also show how the definition of morality which I am about to give can be reconciled with the theory of evolution and natural selection. In addition, I discuss if moral beliefs improve in the long run with the passage of time. My definition of the word â€Å"morality† does not correspond to the way in which the word is usually used, but I believe that this definition closely approximates what â€Å"morality† is. In order to better explain my definition, I would first like to give an example of what â€Å"morality† is not. Suppose that a man comes home after shopping for food at a supermarket. When his son sees him, he comments on what good and moral people the owners of the supermarket must be. He remarks that the store owners must have been very kind and generous to give all this food to his family. How do you think that his father will answer? Clearly, the father will answer that the supermarket owners did not give him the food because they were kind or generous people, but because it was in their self interest to do so. Although the store owners might indeed be good and moral people, this action is in no way any indication of this. They did what they did because they believed that the action would profit them, and for no other reason. This action, the father would conclude, says nothing about the morality of the store owners. I will now give my definition. All actions can be placed into one of two categories. Some actions can belong to both of these groups simultaneously. However, all actions must belong to at least one of these categories. The first group consists of all actions which we do out of self interest while not harming others. Simple examples of this are riding a bicycle or watching television. These are activities which we engage in because we believe that these activities will benefit us. If an action belongs exclusively to this category, then it is of the same type as that of the supermarket owners in the previous example, and has nothing to do with morality. The second group consists of two types of behavior. The first type is behavior which either harms or intends to harm others. The second type is behavior which we engage in, not because we believe that it will somehow benefit us in the long run, but because we believe that it will benefit others. This includes any action we do, and any action which we refrain from doing, not for ourselves, but for others. It is with this second group of behaviors with which morality is concerned. Morality, then, is engaging in behavior, not out of self interest, but because it is in the interest of others. This is how I define morality. Many people would argue that altruistic actions belonging to the second group which I described do not exist. That is, they would argue that every action every person does is done out of self interest. If a man gives money to charity, they say, he does so only because he gets a warm and fuzzy feeling inside. If a woman donates blood, it is only because doing so makes her feel good about herself. This line of reasoning claims that all these seemingly benevolent actions are really done out of self interest. That is, people engage in such activities only to get these good internal feelings which they want. I disagree with such thinking. Although it is correct that a woman who gives to charity will probably obtain a warm and fuzzy feeling from doing so, it is incorrect to assume that this is the only reason why she engages in this activity. This is an example of an action which can simultaneously fit both of the groups which I described. That is, this woman may be giving to charity both because she feels good after doing so and because she wants to help others. In this case, so long as it is not done entirely out of self interest, it is still related to morality. Some actions which people engage in fall exclusively into my second category, and could never be explained in terms of self interest. An extreme example of this is when a person, who does not believe in an afterlife, makes a split second decision to give up his life for others, as in a case of a soldier throwing his body on a live hand grenade in order to save his comrades. There is no way to argue that the soldier is doing this because he seeks a warm and fuzzy feeling inside, since he is not going to live long enough to enjoy it. Human beings often attempt to persuade others into behaving a certain way by pointing out that it is in their self interest to do so. A police officer may say, for example, that you shouldn’t steal because there is a good chance that you will go to jail if you do. Similarly, a mother may tell her son that he will be punished if he his found misbehaving. None of this, though, in any way influences anyone to become a moral person. It just tells people how to behave in their own self interest. The only lesson this would impart on the child is that if he wants to avoid punishment, he should not misbehave. This will not prevent him from misbehaving the moment he knows that his parents aren’t watching, or after he grows up and moves out of his parents’ house. Similarly, this type of reasoning will not convince a person not to steal if he finds himself in a situation where the chances of being caught are small or non-existent. Nor is there, based on self interest alone, much reason for police officers, judges, and law makers to not abuse the power of their positions. What religions often do with regards to morality is to argue that it is always in a person’s self interest to behave â€Å"morally†. Some religions teach, for example, that if you engage in murder, rape, or torture, you will go to Hell. Others teach that if you engage in such activities you are going to have a very unfortunate next reincarnation. Others may believe that there is no life after death, but that you will be punished in this life for engaging in improper acts. However, this does not really tell anyone to be a moral person. This, again, just tells people how to behave in their self interest. If a woman refrains from killing other people only because she does not want to go to Hell, or if a man gives to charity only because he does not want to be reincarnated as an insect, then these activities have nothing to do with morality. As in the case of the supermarket owner, these people are just acting in their self interest. A religious person can, of course, be acting morally if he engages in activities for the purpose of benefiting others as well as seeking a reward. It is just that, as with the supermarket owner, although an action may have the side effect of benefiting other people, it is not related to morality if seeking a reward or avoiding a punishment is the only motivation. But then the questions before us are the following. Without making an appeal to religion, why is it that we â€Å"should† behave â€Å"morally†? Why is it that we â€Å"should† engage in activities which benefit others and refrain from activities which harm others? In a situation where which course of action is moral is itself a matter of debate, how is it possible, without using religious concepts, to persuasively argue that a particular answer is in fact the correct one. It is these types of questions which I will attempt to answer.